Each step in the fuel cycle presents specific safety and radiation protection challenges. The table below provides a summary; each topic is covered in detail in later chapters.
| Fuel Cycle Step | Key Radiological Hazards | Key Non-Radiological Hazards |
|---|---|---|
| Mining | Radon gas inhalation; external gamma from ore; dust containing uranium | Land disturbance; water table contamination; tailings management |
| Milling | Uranium dust inhalation; tailings contain ~85% of original ore radioactivity | Chemical reagent hazards (acids/alkalis); large waste volumes |
| Conversion | UF₆ is chemically toxic and radioactive; HF produced if UF₆ contacts moisture | Hydrofluoric acid (HF) is extremely corrosive and toxic |
| Enrichment | Criticality risk (accidental assembly of critical mass); UF₆ handling | High energy consumption (diffusion plants); industrial hazards |
| Fuel Fabrication | Uranium dust; criticality risk with enriched material | Industrial manufacturing hazards |
| Transport | Potential for release in accident (very low probability; robust flask design) | Conventional transport risks |
| Reactor Operation | Routine gaseous/liquid discharges; risk of accident releasing radioactivity | Thermal discharge to environment; conventional industrial hazards |
| Spent Fuel Storage | High radiation fields from spent fuel; heat generation | Structural integrity of storage facility over long timescales |
| Reprocessing | Very high activity levels; criticality risk; gaseous/liquid discharges | Chemical hazards (nitric acid, solvents); large waste volumes |
| Waste Disposal | Long-term containment of long-lived radionuclides | Geological stability over thousands of years |